Kravitz et at. The conclusion drawn from the cortisol responses was that variations in cage size have no stress effect as judged by urinary cortisol. (1989). pp 67-69. American Journal of Primatology, 32:159-170. Capitanio's (1986)12 review of behavioural pathology in primates highlights work by several authors on repetitive locomotion stereotypes in macaques. These authors looked at the individual behaviour of both pig- tail and bonnet macaques during a potentially stressful event: exiting the home pen to a smaller cage from which they would be removed for blood drawing. Dunn, D. S. (2015). (1963). Thus, someone with congenital blindness has a disability, as does someone who must use a wheelchair for mobility purposes. This seems to indicate that the causes of stereotypic behaviour are not as straightforward as previously described. The term floating limb is used to describe a phenomenon which involves an animal's limb appearing to move of its own accord. American Journal of Primatology 41:23- 35. Her scholarship is focused on disability issues in psychology, including social justice in reproduction and parenting, disability as diversity and the prevalence disability in the field of psychology. Stereotypic behaviour is evaluated in terms of frequency and duration, in other words, how often does the animal engage in bouts of such behaviour and how long do the bouts last? Although it cannot be argued that stereotypic behaviour is not a welfare problem, this author believes that it is not enough simply to conclude that stereotypic behaviour is a sign of poor welfare in laboratory macaques. The use of stereotypic behaviour as a marker of welfare is well established and can be easily illustrated. Stress is another factor of concern. and Zanella, AJ. 37. The argument is straightforward: use of these honest, candid and less euphemistic terms and phrases enables groups and the individuals within them to "claim" their disabilities with pride. pp 305-309. Crockett et al. Self-aggression and social aggression in laboratory-reared macaques. A complete psychosocial history should include: situational problems, relationship history, sexual problems of the partner, mood, sexual satisfaction, and psychological disorders. One of the oldest and most often cited studies on cage size is the work of Draper and Bernstein (1963).29. These were routine husbandry procedures in the animals' home cage, introduction into a novel environment and full physical restraint. Primates are intelligent, active, curious animals with a need for complex, stimulating environments. The walking can range in speed from slow and deliberate to very quick trotting. In his paper on prevention of abnormal behaviour in rhesus monkeys, Goosen (1988)40 recommends that infants be weaned only when they are three to six months old. The authors used as an example a female monkey which exhibited continuous backward somersaults in the small cage. and received his PhD in social psychology from the University of Virginia. Most of the wild-born animals were older and therefore had been captive and in individual housing longer than the laboratory-born animals. Here however they become self-directed in the absence of a con-specific. 46. Other abnormal behaviours such as severe aggression or inappropriate/inadequate maternal behaviour cannot be considered stereotypic because they are not repetitive and invariant or ritualised. An emphasis on the current living environment of the animal is apparent. 9. 12. (1990). Within its "Publication Manual," the APA also urges writers as well as speakers to avoid using any language that refers to disability in a deleterious or pejorative manner. Berkson, G. (1968). by A.B. Berkson, G., Goodrich, J. and Kraft, I. Stereotypic behaviour will be defined, its use as a marker of welfare will be investigated, and experimental evidence as to the possible causes of the behaviour will be reviewed. The animals in the Draper and Bernstein (1963)29 cage size study were three years old at the time of the experiment and had been in the laboratory for two years. Keiper, R. (1970). Not all members of the disability community think person-first language is the best choice. Language for disability can pose a challenge, especially because no one wants to offend another person or to appear to be insensitive. Erin E. Andrews, former co-chair of APA's Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology is board certified in rehabilitation psychology and currently serves as the supervisory psychologist at the Austin Veterans Affairs (VA) Outpatient Clinic, the largest freestanding VA outpatient clinic in the United States. In comparative primate biology: behaviour, conservation, and ecology. Boccia et at. They concluded that marmosets, in contrast to macaques, do not develop deprivation stereotypes in these rearing conditions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Stereotypies in polar bears. Such undue praise can marginalize, isolate, or unduly glorify what is a medical fact or quality that is but one part of the individual's experience. Repetitive locomotion stereotypes are found in many common laboratory primates, including marmosets, squirrel monkeys, and several species of macaque. 42. All of the cages used were substantially smaller than the ones used in either of the two experiments discussed above. Deprivation stereotypes are usually seen in monkeys that have been separated from their mothers at birth or within the first year of life and raised in part or total social isolation13,14,15,16 These abnormal behaviours are thought to be analogous to the normal behaviours seen in infant and juvenile monkeys. Effects of social and inanimate enrichment on the behavior of yearling rhesus monkeys. 35. Reproduced with permission of the Institute of Animal Technology. 1st ed., p309. (1990)41 were reared in social housing until approximately twenty months of age. In the early stages, the behaviour may be easily interrupted by a loud noise or other stimulus. The author concludes that stereotypic locomotion is a response to early maternal separation in these animals. In their paper on stereotypic behaviour in marmosets, Berkson and his colleagues (1966)18 describe the effects of isolation rearing in a germ-free environment on two marmosets. Animal Behaviour 18:353-357. Stevenson, M.F.(1983). Studies of stereotypy function in the canary (Serinus canarisus). Institute of Neurology Crockett, CM., Bowers, CL., Shimoji, M., Bellanca, R. and Bowden, DM. Sackett, G.P., Holm, R.A. and Ruppenthal, G.C. Home Office/British Government (1989). This technique is often used to determine rank in large groups of monkeys. Ed. She received the 2013 APA Div. William Morrow and Company Incorporated, New York. Harlow was no Freudian. Squirrel monkeys display deprivation stereotypes and repetitive locomotion stereotypes when separated from their mothers at birth and nursery reared in individual cages!9 These animals showed self orality, rocking, and huddling (equivalent to self clasping), as well as a pacing-Iike stereotype referred to as looping and a locomotion stereotype termed rolling-in-a-ball. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives, Contact the Office on Disability Issues in Psychology, © 2021 American Psychological Association. Urinary cortisol responses of long-tailed macaques to five cage sizes, tethering, sedation, and room change. (1980). The animals which exhibited stereotypes were older and had spent more time in small individual cages. In New developments in bioscience: their implications for laboratory animal science. Suomi, S.J., Kraemer, G.W ., Baysinger, C.M. Maja Bergman, Merle A. Keitel, in Navigating Life Transitions for Meaning, 2020. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Stereotypic behaviour has been defined as a repetitive, invariant behaviour pattern with no obvious goal or function.1 A wide range of animals, from canaries2 to polar bears3 to humans4,5,6 can exhibit stereotypes. Self clasp is related to mother clinging or clasping. American Journal of Primatology 23:23-35. Mason, W.A. As stated above, stereotypic behaviour is considered to be indicative of poor psychological well-being and poor general welfare. Disorders of the Nervous System 21 :203-208. Pair-housing rather than single housing for laboratory rhesus macaques. Behavioral effects of enrichment on pair-housed juvenile rhesus monkeys. Primates in laboratories are considered especially at risk of being bored. 15. Abnormal behaviors in nursery-reared squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). They competed vigorously for access to the spout with lots of pushing and shoving. Crockett, CM., Bowers, CL., Shimoji, M., Bellanca, R. and Bowden, DM. Animal Behaviour27: 699-715. Disabled people who choose identity-first language claim and celebrate, rather than distance themselves, from their disabilities. The behaviour of both wild-born and laboratory-born animals was examined. Perceptual and Motor Skills 23:491-498. London: Bailiere Tindall. The US Animal Welfare Act amendment of 1985 (published in 1991)21 required researchers to promote the psychological well-being of the captive primates in their care. Also in this category is the behaviour referred to as over-grooming, where an animal removes all the hair from one part of its body, usually a small patch on the shoulder or arm. Solleveld. Though helpful, these terms do not encompass all forms of stereotypic behaviour nor do they completely eliminate confusion regarding the different forms. Remember that both approaches are designed to respect disabled persons, so both are fine choices. Appetite and urinary cortisol responses to different cage sizes in female pig-tailed macaques. Examples include crib-biting and wind- sucking in horses,7 eye-rolling in veal calves,8 sham-chewing in pigs,9 and jumping in bank voles.10 Stereotypes may be oral or involve bizarre postures or prolonged locomotion.

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